SCAPEGOAT Pt.1
A History of West Africa's Role in the Forced Migration of Igbo People.
The transatlantic slave trade and the displacement of millions of Africans, particularly the Igbo people, are complex subjects supported by extensive historical documentation. I will cite several key sources to construct a narrative to understand the context of this forced migration better and highlight the Igbo cultural legacies in the American South and the Caribbean. These sources include historical records, anthropological studies, linguistic research, and oral histories, each providing valuable insights into the origins, experiences, and lasting influence of the Igbo peoples in the diaspora.
1. Slave Ship Manifests and Records: Documenting Igbo Presence in the Americas
One of the most critical sources of information about the Igbo people's forced migration to the Americas comes from ship manifests and historical records of slave ships. These records document the transatlantic transport of enslaved Africans, including the names of ships, the number of individuals on board, and their points of origin. Some of the most significant vessels involved in the transport of Igbo captives include:
The Phillis (1760): This ship carried Igbo captives from Bonny, a major slave trading port in what is now southeastern Nigeria, to Savannah, Georgia. The manifest shows that the Phillis transported a significant number of Igbo enslaved people, providing evidence of their involvement in the Atlantic slave trade.
The Hope (1800): The Hope transported 350 Igbo individuals from the Bight of Bonny to Alabama. This particular ship is essential for understanding how the Igbo were displaced to areas such as Alabama, a region where their descendants would go on to influence Southern culture.
The African (1795): This vessel carried over 400 Igbo captives from Bonny to Charleston, South Carolina. The ship’s records also demonstrate the role of the Efik people in coordinating the transportation of enslaved Igbos to various parts of the Americas.
The Clotilda (1859): The Clotilda is infamous as the last known illegal slave ship to transport captives to the United States, landing in Mobile, Alabama. Among the 110 enslaved Africans brought by this ship were a significant number of Igbo captives, many of whom went on to found Africatown in Alabama.
These ship manifests are an essential source of evidence that confirms the mass migration of the Igbo to the Americas. The records provide direct insight into the scale of the transatlantic trade and reveal the consistent presence of Igbo captives in key slave ports, such as Charleston, Savannah, and Mobile. Furthermore, they serve as a reminder of the personal stories of those torn from their homeland and the cultural exchange that occurred along the way.
2. The Role of African Intermediaries in the Slave Trade
Beyond the European slave traders, several African groups played key roles as intermediaries in the forced migration of the Igbo people. These African kingdoms and confederacies were integral to the trade network and were deeply involved in the capture and sale of slaves. Notably, the following groups stand out in their involvement in the Igbo slave trade:
A. The Kingdom of Benin
The Kingdom of Benin, located in what is now southern Nigeria, was one of the first African kingdoms to engage with European traders in the slave trade. Initially resistant to selling their own people, the Benin rulers eventually capitalized on the European demand for enslaved labor. This shift was primarily driven by the economic benefits of the trade, such as acquiring firearms, textiles, and other goods in exchange for captives.
Benin's involvement was strategic, as they expanded their territory and waged wars to capture prisoners of war, many of whom were sold into slavery. These captives included members of the Igbo ethnic group, who were sent across the Atlantic as part of the trade. Benin’s records of trade transactions with the Portuguese, Dutch, and British show the kingdom's central role in supplying Igbo captives to European slave traders.
B. The Aro Confederacy
The Aro Confederacy, based in southeastern Nigeria, was another key player in the Igbo slave trade. The Aro people were experts in facilitating the capture and sale of slaves, and they operated within a highly organized system controlled by the Arochukwu Oracle, an influential religious authority in the region. The Aros justified their involvement in the trade by using spiritual reasoning, claiming that captives were "slaves to the gods" and that their sale was a form of divine retribution.
The Aros would send these captives to major slave markets in Bonny, Calabar, and Bimbia. The Aro Confederacy’s role in the transatlantic slave trade is well-documented, and it serves as a significant example of how African elites engaged in the trade, often for economic or political reasons. The legacy of the Aro people remains important to understanding the complex nature of the slave trade, as it involved African as well as European actors.
C. The Efik and Kalabari Peoples
The Efik and Kalabari people, both located along Nigeria’s southeastern coastline, controlled major slave trading ports such as Old Calabar and Bonny. These groups, in partnership with European merchants, were deeply involved in the transportation of Igbo captives to the Americas. The Efik, in particular, established close trade relationships with the British and other European powers, trading not only slaves but also valuable resources like palm oil.
Their involvement in the slave trade highlights the role of coastal African communities in the system of slavery. These groups supplied European traders with large numbers of captives, many of whom came from the Igbo region. These relationships were mutually beneficial to both African intermediaries and European traders, and their partnership helped perpetuate the transatlantic slave trade.
D. The Igala and Nupe Kingdoms
Located to the north of Igboland, the Igala and Nupe kingdoms were key participants in the raids that captured Igbo people for sale into slavery. These kingdoms frequently raided Igbo villages, capturing men, women, and children, whom they sold to traders in the north or along the coast. The Igala and Nupe kingdoms collaborated with Hausa and Fulani traders, who helped transport the captives toward the transatlantic or trans-Saharan slave routes.
These raids were a significant source of captives for the transatlantic trade, and they further illustrate the complicated network of African kingdoms involved in slavery. The Igala and Nupe's involvement underscores the violence and betrayal faced by the Igbo, who were not only enslaved by Europeans but also by other African peoples.
3. Cultural and Linguistic Evidence of Igbo Influence in the Americas
The lasting influence of the Igbo people in the Americas is also supported by linguistic and cultural studies. Research into African American Vernacular English (AAVE) and Caribbean Creole has revealed numerous linguistic parallels between these dialects and Igbo language. Words such as “una” (meaning “you all”) are derived from the Igbo “unu,” and names such as Obi, Nneka, and Emeka are still common among African Americans today.
Moreover, anthropological studies of religion and spirituality highlight the continuity of Igbo traditions in the Americas. Practices like libation—pouring liquid to honor ancestors—have roots in Igbo customs, and the concept of “Chi,” or personal destiny and divine guidance, is central to African American religious philosophies. The Ring Shout, a religious dance with origins in Igbo communal worship, is another example of how African spiritual practices endured in the face of slavery.
Research into the agricultural practices of enslaved Africans also reveals Igbo influence, particularly in the crops cultivated in the American South. Rice, yams, black-eyed peas, and okra—staples of Southern and Caribbean cuisine—were grown using techniques introduced by the Igbo people. These agricultural practices not only supported the plantations but also enriched the culinary traditions of the Americas.
4. Maroon Communities and the Resistance Legacy of the Igbo
Maroon communities, formed by escaped slaves who sought refuge in isolated areas, are another significant source of evidence regarding the Igbo's enduring resistance and survival. In places like the Great Dismal Swamp (North Carolina/Virginia), Georgia's Okefenokee Swamp, and Jamaica's Maroon settlements, escaped Igbo captives established free communities. These maroon groups were often led by individuals of Igbo descent, and their resistance to slavery became a symbol of defiance and survival.
The establishment of Africatown in Mobile, Alabama, by survivors of the Clotilda slave ship is a direct link to the legacy of the Igbo. Africatown’s history and cultural practices offer a living testament to the resilience of the Igbo people in the face of forced migration and oppression.
Conclusion
The Igbo people’s forced migration and their enduring legacy in the Americas are documented through various sources, from ship manifests to the involvement of African intermediaries and cultural studies. Their story is one of immense suffering, but also one of cultural resilience and defiance against the institution of slavery. Today, the Southern United States and the Caribbean are rich with the cultural footprints of the Igbo, whose language, religion, food, and traditions continue to shape these regions. The sources detailed above provide a comprehensive view of the Igbo people’s journey from captivity to cultural immortality, illustrating the profound and lasting impact of their heritage on the Americas.
